Identifying Lead Components in Uganda’s Water Infrastructure Supply: A Supply Chain Mapping and Intervention-Identifying Analysis

Keshav Srivenkatesh , Michael B. Fisher , Ryan D. Cronk , Aaron B. Salzberg , Timothy Purvis 

Lead (Pb) exposure through drinking water causes a substantive preventable disease burden. The primary source of Pb in drinking water is through Pb-containing infrastructure, including leaded-brass fittings, galvanized iron/steel pipes, and some plastics. As the source of Pb through drinking water is widely known, its prevention through a supply chain intervention is possible. This is true in Uganda, where the use of potentially Pb-containing handpumps and piped drinking water infrastructure has been previously documented. As Uganda has signed the Global Lead-Free Water Pledge and appears to import Pb-containing materials, an evaluation of its supply chains for drinking water infrastructure may identify points of future intervention. We used an established desk-based methodology to produce Supply Chain Maps (SCMs) of major infrastructure components, including handpumps, submersible pumps, and pipes. We collected information from drinking water infrastructure vendors, installers, manufacturers, and relevant press statements through searches from October 2024 to April 2025. We identified a diverse set of handpump manufacturers (n=25) in South Asia, from which evidence indicates that Pb-containing galvanized iron/steel infrastructure is entering Uganda. We found a smaller set of firms responsible for producing handpumps and submersible mechanized pumps (n=8), for which materials are advertised as Pb-free stainless steel. However, this claim lacks third-party validation in many cases. If true, this indicates the existence of available Pb-free alternatives, suggesting that future installation of Pb-containing materials can be avoided. We did not find evidence of a domestic manufacturing base for handpumps in Uganda, suggesting that the import process may be a critical control point for Pb elimination. There was limited information about the pipes and fittings used in drinking water systems, as the processes governing this infrastructure are decentralized and appear to lack an online presence. We present the potential for leveraging the outputs of SCMs to inform other tools, like the Hazards Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) framework for protecting national drinking water supply chains, and the Water Safety Plan (WSP) tool for ensuring Pb-free local water systems. From the findings of the Uganda SCM, we identified potential intervention points to be further evaluated through HACCP and WSP frameworks. This study demonstrates that even in the absence of direct material testing, supply chain structures can identify plausible entry points and controls for toxic materials in drinking water infrastructure.