Dense neural network outperforms other machine learning models for scaling-up lichen cover maps in Eastern Canada

Galen Richardson , Anders Knudby, Wenjun Chen, Michael Sawada, Julie Lovitt, Liming He, Leila Yousefizadeh Naeni

Lichen mapping is vital for caribou management plans and sustainable land conservation. Previous studies have used random forest, dense neural network, and convolutional neural network models for mapping lichen coverage. However, to date, it is not clear how these models rank in this task. In this study, these machine learning models were evaluated on
their ability to predict lichen percent coverage in Sentinel-2 imagery in Quebec and Labrador, Canada. The models were trained on 10-m resolution lichen coverage (%) maps created from 20 drone surveys collected in July 2019 and 2022. The dense neural network achieved a higher accuracy than the other two, with a reported mean absolute error of 5.2% and an R2 of 0.76. By comparison, the random forest model returned a mean absolute error of 5.5% (R2: 0.74) and the convolutional neural network had a mean absolute error of 5.3% (R2: 0.74). A regional lichen map was created using the trained dense neural network and a Sentinel-2 imagery mosaic. There was greater uncertainty on land covers that the model was not exposed to in training, such as mines and deep lakes. While the dense neural network
requires more computational effort to train than a random forest model, the 5.9% performance gain in the test pixel comparison renders it the most suitable for lichen mapping. This study represents progress toward determining the appropriate methodology for generating
accurate lichen maps from satellite imagery for caribou conservation and sustainable land management.