Climate Change Perceptions and Water Security: Evidence from Low-Income Urban Communities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Victor U Okpanachi , Thania Brinks Zuñiga , Taylor Simmons, Victoria Lynch, Naqib Safi, Hussein Mohamed, Aminata Kilungo 

Background

Water scarcity is being exacerbated by climate change, especially in low- and middle-income countries with limited adaptation capacity.

Methods

Between June and October 2023, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of 364 households in three districts of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. We used structured questionnaires to evaluate the household's demographic characteristics, knowledge of climate change, water accessibility, perceptions of water quality and security, and adaptation strategies. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and multivariable logistic regression models were used to identify socioeconomic predictors of perceptions.

Results

Despite 98% of the household’s respondents reporting access to improved water source, 67% have basic to limited access. They travel more than 30 minutes to collect water, and only 33% have access to safely managed water sources such as piped water and boreholes. Of the total (n=364), 22% have inconsistent water supply. Households with inconsistent water supply spend about 37% of their monthly income, which is well above the United Nation’s (UNs) 3–5% benchmark on water cost despite most families living on less than $1/day. Among the households, gender inequality persists, as women carried the greater (58%) burden of water collection. While 85% of household’s respondents were knowledgeable about climate change, 22% were unable to link climate change with waterborne disease risks, highlighting persistent knowledge gaps. The level of educational attainment was the strongest predictor of climate–water perceptions (OR = 1.81, 95% CI: 1.25–2.62, p = 0.002). Other socioeconomic factors like being divorced (OR = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.35–0.94, p = 0.030) and income level (OR = 1.35, 95% CI: 1.07–1.71, p = 0.012) also influence household perception on whether enough has been done to address climate–water challenges. Households perceiving climate change as a threat were more likely to treat water (p = 0.025) and use alternative sources (p = 0.018).

Conclusion

Household resilience in Dar es Salaam is constrained by high water costs, gendered burdens, and awareness gaps. Expanding climate communication and education, addressing gender inequities, and investing in equitable water infrastructure are essential for achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which aims to ensure equal access to safe drinking water for all.