Joshua Robert Brown , Iris Buisman, Maria Paula Castellanos Melendez, John Dikaung, Léa Dumon Steenssens, Marie Edmonds, Ben Ellis, Margaret Hartley, Ima Itikarai, Kila Mulina, David Axford Neave , Gautier Nicoli, Lois Salem, Zoja Vukmanovic, Brendan T. McCormick Kilbride

Bagana is a persistently active stratovolcano located on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. Characteristic activity consists of prolonged lava effusion over months to years, with occasional shifts to explosive vulcanian or subplinian eruptions which threaten surrounding communities. Satellite observations have shown that Bagana is a major SO2 emitter, particularly during eruptive intervals. Despite persistent and potentially hazardous activity, no previous geophysical, petrological, or geochemical studies have constrained the magma storage conditions and reservoir processes at Bagana. To address this knowledge gap, we present new bulk rock major, trace element and radiogenic isotope data, plus mineral phase major element compositions, for Bagana lavas erupted in 2005 and 2012 and ash erupted in 2016. We use our new data to understand the magmatic processes controlling the typical effusive activity and provide the first estimates of magma storage conditions beneath Bagana. The basaltic andesite bulk rock compositions (56-58 wt % SiO2) of our Bagana lavas reflect accumulation of a plagioclase + clinopyroxene + amphibole + magnetite + orthopyroxene crystal cargo by andesitic-dacitic (57-66 wt % SiO2) carrier melts. Constraints from clinopyroxene and amphibole thermobarometry, amphibole hygrometry and experimental petrology suggest that the high-An plagioclase + clinopyroxene + amphibole + magnetite assemblage crystallizes from basaltic-basaltic andesitic parental magmas with 4-9 wt % H2O, at ~1100-900 °C and 240-570 MPa, corresponding to ~9-21 km depth. Continued crystallization in the mid-crust produces andesitic-dacitic residual melts, which segregate and ascend towards the surface. These ascending melts entrain a diverse crystal cargo through interaction with melt-rich and mushy magma bodies. Degassing of carrier melts during ascent results in crystallization of low-An plagioclase and the formation of amphibole breakdown rims. The radiogenic isotope and trace element compositions of Bagana lavas suggest that parental magmas feeding the system derive from an enriched mantle source modified by both slab fluids and subducted sediments. Our findings suggest that the prolonged lava effusion and persistently high gas emissions that characterise Bagana’s activity in recent decades are sustained by a steady state regime of near-continuous ascent and degassing of magmas from the mid-crust. Our characterisation of the Bagana magmatic plumbing system during effusive activity provides a valuable framework for interpreting ongoing monitoring data, and for identifying any differences in magmatic processes during any future shift to explosive activity.